Preparing for masters thesis defense

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Economics A-Z terms beginning with A. This is the simplest yardstick of for masters, economic performance. If one person, firm or country can produce more of something with the same amount of effort and rates resources, they have an absolute advantage over preparing, other producers. Being the best at something does not mean that doing that thing is the best way to use your scarce economic resources. The question of conflict essays romeo juliet, what to specialise in--and how to for masters thesis, maximise the an essay, benefits from international trade--is best decided according to preparing for masters thesis defense, comparative advantage. Both absolute and comparative advantage may change significantly over time. A theory of how people form their views about the future that assumes they do so using past trends and the errors in their own earlier predictions. Contrast with rational expectations. When you do business with people you would be better off avoiding. This is one of and define, two main sorts of market failure often associated with insurance. The other is for masters moral hazard. Adverse selection can be a problem when there is asymmetric information between the seller of insurance and the buyer; in particular, insurance will often not be profitable when buyers have better information about their risk of claiming than does the conflict essays romeo juliet, seller. Ideally, insurance premiums should be set according to the risk of a randomly selected person in the insured slice of the population (55-year-old male smokers, say). For Masters Thesis Defense? In practice, this means the average risk of that group. When there is adverse selection, people who know they have a higher risk of claiming than the average of the group will buy the conflict romeo, insurance, whereas those who have a below-average risk may decide it is thesis defense too expensive to be worth buying. In this case, premiums set according to the average risk will not be sufficient to essay solution global, cover the claims that eventually arise, because among the people who have bought the policy more will have above-average risk than below-average risk. Putting up the premium will not solve this problem, for as the premium rises the insurance policy will become unattractive to more of the people who know they have a lower risk of claiming. One way to reduce adverse selection is to make the purchase of insurance compulsory, so that those for preparing for masters thesis whom insurance priced for average risk is unattractive are not able to opt out. Many firms advertise their goods or services, but are they wasting economic resources? Some economists reckon that advertising merely manipulates consumer tastes and creates desires that would not otherwise exist. By increasing product differentiation and encouraging brand loyalty advertising may make consumers less price sensitive, moving the market further from perfect competition towards imperfect competition (see monopolistic competition) and increasing the ability of firms to charge more than marginal cost. Heavy spending on advertising may also create a barrier to research, entry, as a firm entering the preparing thesis, market would have to spend a lot on advertising too. However, some economists argue that advertising is economically valuable because it increases the flow of information in the economy and reduces the asymmetric information between the seller and romeo juliet the consumer. This intensifies competition, as consumers can be made aware quickly when there is a better deal on preparing thesis offer. These can arise when somebody (the principal) hires somebody else (the agent) to carry out a task and the interests of the conflict essays, agent conflict with the interests of the principal. An example of thesis, such principal-agent problems comes from the relationship between the shareholders who own a public company and the managers who run it. The owners would like managers to run the firm in ways that maximise the value of their shares, whereas the managers' priority may be, say, to problem solution global, build a business empire through rapid expansion and mergers and acquisitions, which may not increase their firm's share price. One way to reduce agency costs is for the principal to monitor what the agent does to make sure it is what he has been hired to do. But this can be costly, too. For Masters Defense? It may be impossible to define the agent's job in conflict juliet a way that can be monitored effectively. For instance, it is hard to preparing, know whether a manager who has expanded a firm through an acquisition that reduced its share price was pursuing his own empire-building interests or, say, was trying to maximise shareholder value but was unlucky. Another way to lower agency costs, especially when monitoring is essay and define too expensive or too difficult, is to make the interests of the agent more like those of the principal. For instance, an for masters thesis, increasingly common solution to the agency costs arising from the separation of ownership and management of public companies is to how start, pay managers partly with shares and share options in the company. This gives the preparing for masters defense, managers a powerful incentive to act in the interests of the owners by maximising shareholder value. But even this is not a perfect solution. Some managers with lots of share options have engaged in accounting fraud in order to increase the value of those options long enough for them to cash some of them in, but to the detriment of their firm and its other shareholders. See, for example, Enron. Countries often provide support for uk their farmers using trade barriers and subsidy because, for example: *domestic agriculture, even if it is preparing for masters thesis defense inefficient by world standards, can be an insurance policy in case it becomes difficult (as it does, for research on cloning humans example, in wartime) to buy agricultural produce from abroad; *farmers groups have proved adept at lobbying; *politicians have sought to slow the depopulation of rural areas; *agricultural prices can be volatile, as a result of unpredictable weather, among other things; and. *financial support can provide a safety net in unexpectedly severe market conditions. Broadly speaking, governments have tried two methods of subsidising agriculture. Preparing Defense? The first, used in the United States during the 1930s and in the UK before it joined the European Union, is to top up farmers' incomes if they fall below a level deemed acceptable. Farmers may be required to set aside some of their land in return for how start this support. The second is to guarantee a minimum level of farm prices by preparing thesis buying up surplus supply and thesis editing rates uk storing or destroying it if prices would otherwise fall below the guaranteed levels. This was the approach adopted by preparing for masters thesis defense the EU when it set up its Common Agricultural Policy. Conflict Essays? To keep down the direct cost of this subsidy the EU used trade barriers, including import levies, to minimise competition to EU farmers from for masters thesis, produce available more cheaply on world agriculture markets. Recent American farm-support policy has combined income top-ups and some guaranteed prices. As most governments have become more committed to international trade, such agricultural policies have come under increasing attack, although the free trade rhetoric has often run far ahead of genuine reform. In 2003, rich countries together spent over $300 billion a year supporting their farmers, more than six times what they spent on foreign AID. Finding a way to end agricultural support had become by far the biggest remaining challenge for those trying to negotiate global free trade. Farming around the world continues to become more productive while generally accounting for a smaller share of employment and national income, although in some poor countries it remains the sector on which the country and its people depend. Farming, forestry and fishing in 1913 accounted for 28% of admission jbf, employment in the United States, 41% in France and 60% in preparing defense Japan, but only 12% in the UK. Now the research paper humans, proportion of the workforce employed in such activities has dropped below 6% in preparing for masters defense these and an essay most other industrialised countries. The total value of international trade in agriculture has risen steadily. But the global agriculture market remains severely distorted by trade barriers and for masters government subsidy, such as the european union's Common agricultural policy. It is often alleged that altruism is inconsistent with economic rationality, which assumes that people behave selfishly. How Start An Essay? Certainly, much economic analysis is preparing for masters defense concerned with how individuals behave, and homo economicus (economic man) is usually assumed to act in his or her self-interest. However, self-interest does not necessarily mean selfish. Some economic models in the field of behavioural economics assume that self-interested individuals behave altruistically because they get some benefit, or utility, from doing so. Thesis Editing Uk? For instance, it may make them feel better about themselves, or be a useful insurance policy against preparing social unrest, say. Some economic models go further and relax the traditional assumption of how start, fully rational behaviour by simply assuming that people sometimes behave altruistically, even if this may be against their self-interest. Either way, there is much economic literature about charity, international aid, public spending and redistributive taxation. The running down or payment of for masters thesis defense, a loan by instalments. Thesis Uk? An example is a repayment mortgage on thesis a house, which is thesis rates amortised by making monthly payments that over a pre-agreed period of time cover the value of the loan plus interest. With loans that are not amortised, the borrower pays only preparing, interest during the period of the loan and then repays the sum borrowed in full. The colourful name that keynes gave to research paper humans, one of the essential ingredients of economic prosperity: confidence. According to Keynes, animal spirits are a particular sort of defense, confidence, "naive optimism". He meant this in the sense that, for entrepreneurs in particular, "the thought of ultimate loss which often overtakes pioneers, as experience undoubtedly tells us and them, is papers for sale put aside as a healthy man puts aside the expectation of death". Preparing For Masters Defense? Where these animal spirits come from is something of a mystery. Certainly, attempts by politicians and others to talk up confidence by making optimistic noises about economic prospects have rarely done much good. government policy for essays romeo dealing with monopoly. Antitrust laws aim to stop abuses of market power by big companies and, sometimes, to preparing for masters, prevent corporate mergers and acquisitions that would create or strengthen a monopolist. There have been big differences in antitrust policies both among countries and within the conflict essays, same country over preparing for masters defense, time. This has reflected different ideas about what constitutes a monopoly and, where there is one, what sorts of behaviour are abusive. In the United States, monopoly policy has been built on the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. This prohibited contracts or conspiracies to restrain trade or, in research on cloning humans the words of a later act, to preparing for masters defense, monopolise commerce. In the early 20th century this law was used to reduce the economic power wielded by so-called "robber barons", such as JP Morgan and John D. Rockefeller, who dominated much of essay and define, American industry through huge trusts that controlled companies' voting shares. Du Pont chemicals, the railroad companies and Rockefeller's Standard Oil, among others, were broken up. In the 1970s the Sherman Act was turned (ultimately without success) against preparing for masters IBM, and in 1982 it secured the editing rates, break-up of AT&T's nationwide telecoms monopoly. In the 1980s a more laissez-faire approach was adopted, underpinned by economic theories from the chicago school. For Masters? These theories said that the only justification for antitrust intervention should be that a lack of competition harmed consumers, and not that a firm had become, in rates uk some ill-defined sense, too big. Some monopolistic activities previously targeted by antitrust authorities, such as predatory pricing and exclusive marketing agreements, were much less harmful to consumers than had been thought in the past. They also criticised the traditional method of identifying a monopoly, which was based on looking at what percentage of a market was served by the biggest firm or firms, using a measure known as the herfindahl-hirschman index. Preparing Thesis? Instead, they argued that even a market dominated by one firm need not be a matter of antitrust concern, provided it was a contestable market. In the essays romeo juliet, 1990s American antitrust policy became somewhat more interventionist. Preparing For Masters? A high-profile lawsuit was launched against Microsoft in 1998. The giant software company was found guilty of anti-competitive behaviour, which was said to slow the pace of innovation. However, fears that the firm would be broken up, signalling a far more interventionalist American antitrust policy, proved misplaced. The firm was not severely punished. In the thesis uk, UK, antitrust policy was long judged according to what policymakers decided was in the public interest. At times this approach was comparatively permissive of mergers and acquisitions; at others it was less so. However, in the mid-1980s the UK followed the American lead in thesis basing antitrust policy on whether changes in competition harmed consumers. Within the rest of the european union several big countries pursued policies of building up national champions, allowing chosen firms to enjoy some monopoly power at essay problem solution warming home which could be used to preparing defense, make them more effective competitors abroad. Research Paper On Cloning? However, during the 1990s the European Commission became increasingly active in antitrust policy, mostly seeking to promote competition within the EU. In 2000, the EU controversially blocked a merger between two American firms, GE and Honeywell; the deal had already been approved by America's antitrust regulators. The controversy highlighted an important issue. As globalisation increases, the relevant market for judging whether market power exists or is being abused will increasingly cover far more territory than any one single economy. Indeed, there may be a need to establish a global antitrust watchdog, perhaps under the auspices of the world trade organisation. A rise in the value of an asset and the opposite for masters defense of depreciation. When the value of a currency rises relative to another, it appreciates. Buying an asset in one market and simultaneously selling an identical asset in another market at a higher price. Sometimes these will be identical assets in thesis rates different markets, for instance, shares in a company listed on both the London Stock Exchange and for masters New York Stock Exchange. Often the assets being arbitraged will be identical in a more complicated way, for example, they will be different sorts of financial securities that are each exposed to identical risks. Some kinds of romeo, arbitrage are completely risk-free-this is pure arbitrage. Preparing For Masters Thesis Defense? For instance, if EUROS are available more cheaply in dollars in London than in New York, arbitrageurs (also known as arbs) can make a risk-free PROFIT by buying euros in London and selling an identical amount of them in New York. Opportunities for pure arbitrage have become rare in recent years, partly because of the GLOBALISATION of FINANCIAL MARKETS. Today, a lot of and define, so called arbitrage, much of it done by hedge funds, involves assets that have some similarities but are not identical. This is not pure arbitrage and can be far from risk free. This is one of two influential economic theories of how assets are priced in the financial markets. The other is the capital asset pricing model. The arbitrage pricing theory says that the price of a financial asset reflects a few key risk factors, such as the expected rate of interest, and how the price of the asset changes relative to the price of a portfolio of assets. If the price of an asset happens to diverge from what the theory says it should be, arbitrage by investors should bring it back into preparing for masters thesis line. During 1997-98, many of the East Asian tiger economies suffered a severe finanical and economic crisis. This had big consequences for the global financial markets, which had become increasingly exposed to the promise that Asia had seemed to humans, offer. The crisis destroyed wealth on a massive scale and sent absolute poverty shooting up. In the banking system alone, corporate loans equivalent to around half of one year's GDP went bad - a destruction of savings on a scale more usually associated with a full-scale war. The precise cause of the crisis remains a matter of debate. Fingers have been pointed at the currency peg adopted by some countries, and defense a reduction of capital controls in the years before the crisis. Some blamed economic contagion. The crisis brought an end to essay and define, a then widespread belief that there was a distinct "Asian way" of thesis, capitalism that might prove just as successful as capitalism in America or Europe. Instead, critics turned their fire on Asian cronyism, ill-disciplined banking and lack of transparency. In the years following the crisis, most of the countries involved have introduced reforms designed to increase transparency and improve the health of the banking system, although some (such as South Korea) went much further than others (such as Indonesia). Things that have earning power or some other value to their owner. When somebody knows more than somebody else. Such asymmetric information can make it difficult for the two people to do business together, which is why economists, especially those practising game theory, are interested in it. Conflict Juliet? Transactions involving asymmetric (or private) information are everywhere. For Masters? A government selling broadcasting licences does not know what buyers are prepared to pay for them; a lender does not know how likely a borrower is to for sale, repay; a used-car seller knows more about the quality of the car being sold than do potential buyers. This kind of asymmetry can distort people's incentives and result in significant inefficiencies. When something unexpected happens that affects one economy (or part of an for masters thesis defense, economy) more than the rest. This can create big problems for policymakers if they are trying to set a macroeconomic policy that works for both the area affected by the shock and the unaffected area. For instance, some economic areas may be oil exporters and thus highly dependent on the price of oil, but other areas are not. If the oil price plunges, the oil-dependent area would benefit from essay, policies designed to boost demand that might be unsuited to the needs of the rest of the preparing, economy. This may be a constant problem for how start those responsible for setting the interest rate for the euro given the big differences--and different potential exposures to shocks--among the economies within the euro zone. Going, going, gone. Holding an auction can be an extremely efficient way for a seller to set the price of its products, especially if it does not have much information about how much people may be willing to pay for them. Auctions fascinate economists, especially those who specialise in for masters thesis game theory. They have long been a feature of the sale of art and antiques in the rooms of firms such as Sotheby's and essays romeo juliet Christie's. But in recent years they have played a growing role in other parts of the preparing defense, economy, ranging from the allocation of government-controlled broadcasting bandwidth to the awarding of work to subcontractors by governments and big firms using competitive tendering, and conflict essays even more recently the sale of goods over the Internet. An English auction is the most familiar. Bidders compete to offer higher prices and drop out until only preparing thesis defense, one remains. In a Dutch auction, the how start an essay, auctioneer calls out a high price then keeps lowering it until there is a buyer. There are various forms of sealed bid auctions. In a first price sealed bid, each buyer submits a price in a sealed envelope and all bids are opened simultaneously, with the highest offer winning. In a second (or third, fourth, and so on) price sealed bid, the highest bidder wins but pays only the second (third, fourth) highest price bid. An English or Dutch auction will work well for a seller if there is more than one serious bidder, as competition will ensure that the price is set at preparing thesis the level at which it is not worth more to any other bidder but the how start, winner. Indeed, in a competitive auction the successful bidder may end up offering more than what is being auctioned is thesis defense actually worth. This is known as the winner's curse. Which method will generate the research on cloning humans, best price for the seller depends on how many bidders take part and how well informed they are. Unfortunately for the seller, this information is not always available before the auction takes place. A brand of preparing defense, neo-classical economics established in Vienna during the late 19th century and the first half of the essay, 20th century. It was strongly opposed to Marxism and, more broadly, to preparing for masters thesis defense, the use of economic theories to justify government intervention in the economy. Conflict Essays Juliet? Prominent members included Friedrich hayek, Joseph schumpeter and Ludwig von Mises. It gave birth to the definition of economics as the science of studying human behaviour as a relationship between ends and preparing for masters scarce means that have alternative uses. How Start? Austrian economic thinking was characterised by attributing all economic activity, including the behaviour of apparently impersonal institutions, to the wishes and preparing for masters thesis defense actions of individuals. It did this by examining choices in terms of on cloning humans, their opportunity cost (that is, what is the next best use of preparing for masters thesis defense, resources to that which is an essay being considered?) and by analysing the preparing for masters thesis, impact of timing on decision making. Hayek correctly predicted the admission for sale, failure of preparing for masters thesis defense, Soviet-style central planning. His ideas are said to have inspired many of the free-market reforms carried out during the conflict essays juliet, 1980s in the United States under Ronald Reagan and in thesis the UK under Margaret Thatcher. Schumpeter developed a theory of innovation and economic change characterised by the phrase creative destruction. The idea that a country should be self-sufficient and not take part in international trade. Conflict Essays? The experience of for masters thesis defense, countries that have pursued this Utopian ideal by substituting domestic production for imports is an unhappy one. No country has been able to produce the full range of goods demanded by conflict its population at competitive prices. Indeed, those that have tried to do so have condemned themselves to inefficiency and comparative poverty, compared with countries that engage in international trade. A number that is calculated to summarise a group of numbers. The most commonly used average is the mean, the sum of the numbers divided by however many numbers there are in the group. The median is the middle value in a group of numbers ranked in preparing thesis defense order of size. The mode is the number that occurs most often in a group of numbers. Take the following group of numbers: 1, 2, 2, 9, 12, 13, 17. The mean is 56/7=8, The median is 9, Economics A-Z is adapted from "Essential Economics", by Matthew Bishop - Bloomberg Press; Economist Books. Take our weekly news quiz to solution global warming, stay on top of the headlines. Visit The Economist e-store and you’ll find a range of carefully selected products for business and preparing for masters thesis defense pleasure, Economist books and diaries, and much more.